The Debate Over the Clearcutting Method

The Debate Over the Clearcutting Method Clearcutting is a method of harvesting and regenerating trees in which all trees are cleared from a site and a new, even-aged stand of timber is grown. Clearcutting is only one of several methods of timber management and harvest on both private and public forests. However, this single method of harvesting trees has always been controversial but even more so since mid-1960s environmental awareness. Many conservation and citizen groups object to clearcutting on any forest, citing soil and water degradation, unsightly landscapes, and other damages. The wood products industry and mainstream forestry professionals defend clearcutting as an efficient and successful silvicultural system but only used under certain conditions where non-timber issues are not degraded. The choice of clearcutting by forest owners is much dependent upon their objectives. If that objective is for maximum timber production, clearcutting can be financially efficient with lower costs for timber harvesting than other tree harvesting systems. Clearcutting has also proven successful for regenerating stands of certain tree species without damaging the ecosystem. Current Status The Society of American Foresters, an organization that represents mainstream forestry, promotes clearcutting as a method of regenerating an even-aged stand in which a new age class develops in a fully-exposed microclimate after removal, in a single cutting, of all trees in the previous stand. There is some debate about the minimum area that constitutes a clearcut, but typically, areas smaller than 5 acres would be considered patch cuts. Larger cleared forests more easily fall into the classic, forestry defined as clear-cut. Removing trees and forests to convert land to non-forest urban development and rural agriculture would not be considered clearcutting. This is called land conversion - converting the use of land from forest to another type of use. What's All the Fuss About? Clearcutting is not a universally accepted practice. Opponents of the practice of cutting every tree within a specific area contend it degrades the environment. Forestry professionals and resource managers argue that the practice is sound if used properly. In a report written for a major private forest owner publication, three extension specialists, one forestry professor, one assistant dean of a major college of forestry and a state forest health specialist agree that clearcutting is a necessary silvicultural practice. According to the article, a complete clearcut usually creates the best conditions for regenerating stands under certain conditions and should be used when those conditions occur. Check out these clearcut myths and facts developed by the Virginia Department of Forestry (pdf). This is opposed to a commercial clearcut where all trees of marketable species, size, and quality are cut. This process does not take into account any of the concerns addressed by forest ecosystem management. Aesthetics, water quality, and forest diversity  are the main sources of public objection to clearcutting. Unfortunately,  an often disinterested public and casual viewers of forestry activities have overwhelmingly decided that clearcutting is not an acceptable social practice simply by looking at the practice from their car windows. Negative terms like deforestation, plantation forestry, environmental degradation and excess and exploitation are closely associated with clearcutting. I have written a history of how forest ecosystems are now treated by natural resource professionals to include most foresters. Clearcutting in national forests can now only be done if it is used to further the improvement of ecological objectives to include wildlife habitat improvement or to preserve forest health but not for specific economic gain. Pros Proponents of clearcutting suggest that it is a sound practice if the right conditions are met and correct harvest methods used. Here are conditions that can include clearcutting as a harvest tool: When regenerating tree species that need full sunlight to stimulate seed sprouting and seedling growth.When dealing with sparse or exposed or shallow-rooted trees that are in danger of being damaged by  wind.When trying to produce an even-aged stand.When regenerating stands of tree species that are dependent on wind blown seed, root suckers or cones that need fire to drop seed.When faced with salvaging over-mature stands and/or stands killed by insects, disease or fire.When converting to another tree species by planting or seeding.To provide habitat for wildlife species that require edge, new ground and high-density, even-aged stands. Cons Opponents of clearcutting suggest that it is a destructive practice and should never be done. Here are their reasons, although not  every one of these can be supported by current scientific data: A clearcut increases soil erosion, water degradation and increased  silting  in creeks, rivers, and reservoirs.Old growth forests, which have been systematically clearcut, are healthy ecosystems which have evolved over centuries to be more resistant to insects and disease.Clearcutting inhibits sustainability of healthy and holistic forest ecosystems.Aesthetics and quality forest views are compromised by clearcutting.Deforestation and the resulting removal of  tree  from clearcutting  leads  to a plantation forestry mentality and results in environmental degradation.

Identifying and Dating Old Cabinet Card Photographs

Identifying and Dating Old Cabinet Card Photographs Cabinet cards, popular in the late 1800s, are easy to recognize because they are mounted on cardstock, often with an imprint of the photographer and location just below the photo. There are similiar card-type photographs, such as the smaller  carte-de-visits  which was introduced in the 1850s, but if your old photo is about 4x6 in size then chances are it is a cabinet card. A style of photograph first  introduced in 1863 by Windsor Bridge in London, the cabinet card is a photographic print mounted on card stock. The Cabinet card got its name from its suitability for display in parlors especially in cabinets and was a popular medium for family portraits. Description:A traditional cabinet card consists of a 4 X 5 1/2 photo mounted on 4 1/4 x 6 1/2 card stock. This allows for an extra 1/2 to 1 of space at the bottom of the cabinet card where the name of the photographer or studio was typcially printed. The cabinet card is similar to the smaller carte-de-visite which was introduced in the 1850s. Time Period: First Appeared: 1863 in London; 1866 in America Peak Popularity: 1870-1895 Last Use: Cabinet cards are rarely found dating after 1906, although cabinet cards continued to be produced into the early 1920s. Dating a Cabinet Card:Details of a cabinet card, from the type of card stock to whether it had right-angled or rounded corners, can often help to determine the date of the photograph to within five years. It is important to note, however, that these dating methods arent always accurate. The photographer may have been using up old card stock, or the cabinet card may have been a re-printed copy made many years after the original photo was taken.   Card Stock 1866-1880 Square, lightweight mount1880-1890 Square, heavy weight card stock1890s Scalloped edges Card Colors 1866-1880 Thin, light weight card stock in white, off white or light cream. White and light colors were used in later years, but generally on heavier card stock.1880-1890 Different colors for face and back of mounts1882-1888 Matte-finish front, with a creamy-yellow, glossy back. Borders 1866-1880 Red or gold rules, single and double lines1884-1885 Wide gold borders1885-1892 Gold beveled edges1889-1896 Rounded corner rule of single line1890s on... Embossed borders and/or lettering Lettering 1866-1879 Photographer name and address often printed small and neatly just below the image, and/or studio name printed small on back.1880s on... Large, ornate text for photographer name and address, especially in cursive style. Studio name often takes up the entire back of the card.Late 1880s-90s Gold text on black card stock1890s on... Embossed studio name or other embossed designs Other Types of Card Mounted Photographs: Cartes-de-visite 2 1/2 X 4 1850s - 1900sBoudoir 5 1/2 X 8 1/2 1880sImperial Mount 7 X 10 1890sCigarette Card 2 3/4 X 2 3/4 1885-95, 1909-17Stereograph 3 1/2 X 7 to 5 X 7